Alternate History of Europe Timeline/2

This is part 2 of the Alternate History of Europe Timeline. In this part of the timeline, you will witness the unification of the Spanish kingdoms, the beginnings of the Age of Colonialism, and the continuing rise and strengthening of Muscovy and the Ottoman Empire.

1471


In Britain, Queen Mary I continued her reforms and innovations. The British queen reorganized the entire nobility system of Britain. She divided her domain into nine duchies, eighteen earldoms, five viscounties, and twenty lordoms (or noble estates). The dukes and earls would be invested and removed directly by the Queen, while the viscounts and the lords would ascend to their position through family or hereditary succession. Mary I also expanded and reorganized the Order of the Garder. She also established the Royal Order of Knighthood as well. These reforms affecting the nobility further contributed to strengthen the authority and influence of the British Crown. More importantly, these reforms were written down and codified in law.

In Portugal, King Henry I finally gathered and assembled at the coast, a naval expedition. The expedition consisted of around 10 ships, including 2 ships of the first line and 5 of the second line. In the authorization decree, the King stated that the purposes of the expedition were "to find and seek out a new trade route to the Lands of wealth in the Far East (Asia), to find ways of commerce that bypasses the savage Mohammedans (Ottomans), and to bring back information on such discoveries to the royal Person, and make recommendations for further action." The expedition would be commanded by Portuguese navigator and sailor Bartholomew Dias. The expedition would be launched in the next year.

In Russia, Ivan III of Muscovy launched the first of two military campaigns against the Principality of Novograd, to the north. At that point, Novograd was the largest of the remaining Russian principalities, even surpassing Muscovy in territorial size. It exerted control and domain over territories that even went beyond the Ural Mountains. The Novogradians were well known for their democratic form of government and for their focus on commerce and trade. They had remained relatively immune from Tatar authority. However, the Muscovites had a powerful and well-organized army. By the end of the year, Novograd had been forced to secede most of it's eastern territories to Muscovy. Muscovy thus gained access to the sea, having previously been landlocked.

Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire subordinated the Crimean Khanate, which became a Ottoman protectorate and puppet state. The Crimeans would continue to maintain control over their domestic and internal matters, but their defense, international relations with most European states, and economic commerce would all be under the control and influence of the Ottomans. However, the Crimeans would be able to control their own affairs with the other Tatar khanates and with Muscovy. The Crimean khan would also be appointed and dismissed by the Ottoman Emperor at will. Mengi-Giray, a pro-Ottoman Tatar nobleman, was appointed by Suleiman as the first khan of Crimea's puppet state incarnation.

1473
In Muscovy, Grand Prince Ivan III continued his innovations and internal consolidations of royal power. The grand prince reorganized the Boyar Duma, transforming it into the Royal Advisory Council (Королевский Консультативный Совет). The Council, like the Duma before it, would be a advisory and consultative council to the Grand Prince. However, unlike the Duma, the Council's members would be government officials, appointed, controlled, and dismissed solely by the Grand Prince. The Council would be responsible for the state's finanical revenues and for the day-to-day management of government affairs. Ivan III also began bringing in Italian and German architects, engineers, designers, and military experts to Muscovy, intent on catching his state up with Western Europe. He began the Russian Renassiance, and became known as a patron of arts, the sciences, and architecture. Ivan also relieved the burdens on the peasant population.

In Castile, Princess Isabella ascended to the throne upon the death of King Henry III. Ironically, at the same time, in Aragon Alfonso VI died after a long battle with lung cancer, which was considered "a malady of speech" at the time. Thus Prince Ferdinand ascended to the throne of Aragon. And another ironic fact was that their ascensions to the respective thrones occurred just within a few days of eachother. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand thus became joint rulers of what would eventually become Spain. Both monarchs were jointly crowned and anointed by the Archbishop of Toledo in Madrid. Thus began the reign of the Catholic Monarchs.

King Louis XI of France continued his own innovations and reforms within France. The king further strengthened the authority and influence of the French Crown at the expense of the nobles and the bishops. He established a Commission of Priests (Commission des Évêques). The Commission would consist of French archbishops, bishops, and deacons appointed and dismissed by the King at will. The Commission would be in charge of all Church properties, monasteries, and cathedrals. The approval of the Commission would be required for all new French Church doctrine. The Commission was also charged with executing papal bulls and indictions. Since the Commission was under Royal control and direction, the religious authority of the French Crown was greatly increased.

Emperor Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire also began his own reforms and innovations. He would become known as the Lawgiver to his own subjects, for his extensive administrative and legal innovations, reforms, and modifications. The Emperor expanded and revised the General Code of Laws of the Ottoman Empire, which had been issued by his father Sultan Hatui I. These revisions included information on taxation and properties, a list and compilation of all royal decrees and laws between 1442 and 1473, and a detailed description of the local justice system. Suleiman considerably expanded the secular criminal justice system, making it as powerful as the Islamic law system, the Sharia. He also became known for his benevolent judgments and his fair rulings.

1474


The Ottoman Empire, under the leadership of Suleiman I, as well as it's puppet state, the Crimean Khanate, began a military campaign against the Khanate of the Great Horde, which was continually weakening and fracturing. Nearly 40,000 Ottoman troops and 56,000 Crimean warriors flooded into the southern territories of the Horde. Khan Akhmed, who was embroiled in disputes with his nobles and focused on civil rebellions and dissent, did little to stop the invasion of his domain. By the end of the year, the Great Horde had lost it's limited access to the Sea of Azov and had been shorn of it's southern Russian and Transcaucasian territories. At the same time of the Ottoman invasions in the south, Ivan III of Muscovy, seeing a chance of expansion, expanded into the northern part of the Khanate, annexing many of the Horde's territories near Kazan and Ryazan. Ivan III also annexed much of Ryazan itself, reducing the remainder into a puppet state.

In Spain, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand I began a program of reform and consolidation. The Kingdom of Castile, as a result of the disastrous and harmful rule of Henry III, had been left impoverished, weak, and politically unstable. The nobles of the royal court hatched numerous plots and conspiracies against the Queen, all of which, thankfully, were exposed and destroyed by Royal agents and spies before they could become a true effect. Castile had a immense debt, and the taxation system was extremely ineffective. Also, Castile's military was weak and on shaky ground. The Catholic Monarchs were determined to change all of this. The King and Queen began by placing the nobility under strict Royal control and by reorganizing the taxation system, increasing the power and revenues of the joint Spanish Crown.

In Britain, Queen Mary I began a expansion and revitalization of London, the British capital. Her mother, Queen Margaret I, had created much of London's modern street grid plan and had reorganized the city's local government. Queen Mary also contributed to London's development. She expanded the city's territorial size, constructed numerous palaces, galleries, and other buildings, and rebuilt London's dockyards.

1475


After four years, the Portuguese naval expedition finally returned. King Henry I and his Royal Court, who had believed that the mission had been a failure, were relieved, surprised, and grateful for their return. Dias, the leader of the expedition, informed the King that the ships had went around the southern tip of Africa, which he named the Cape of Good Hope, and that they had sailed across the Indian Ocean. Then he reported they had landed in India, and had acquired a large variety of spices, silk, and valuable minerals. He explained to the King the reason the expedition had been delayed was due to some navigation problems as well as natural storms. Portugal thus had found a new trade route to Asia. The king rewarded Dias greatly. He knighted him, gave him vast amounts of money and land in Portugal, and made him a Admiral. The men of the expedition were given land and money as a reward as well. Portugal began organizing another expedition, to establish a trading fort in India. However, the interest of other nations was aroused as well, including Britain, France, and the Spanish Kingdoms.

Charles the Bold, the Duke of Dutch Burgundy, died when he fell off his horse while out on a hunt. As a result of his death, his lands passed into the possession of his only child, his daughter Mary. Mary would eventually come to marry Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, which would thus extend the territory ruled by the House of Hapsburg. Although relatively unimportant now, this will later form a focus point in European history.

The Ottoman Empire, under the leadership of Suleiman I, launched a campaign against the kingdoms of Georgia. Suleiman's reasons for launching the campaign were: to extend the Ottoman Empire's territory to the south-western Caspian Sea, and two, to further encircle the Black Sea, which was rapidly becoming a "Ottoman lake". The superior and well-organized Ottoman armies rampaged throughout the Georgian lands, defeating and crushing every Georgian force they encountered. They were assisted greatly by Crimean marauders and raiders as well. By the end of the year, the Ottomans had annexed Georgia into their Empire. Suleiman I banished all of the old Georgian kings and imposed the Ottoman government structure in his newly acquired territories. The Ottomans' further expansion alarmed numerous Western and Central European powers, including Aragon, Portugal, Hungary, Bohemia, the Holy Roman Empire, Venice, and Poland-Lithuania, as well as the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia.

In Genoa, a new and ambitious prince came into power: Lorenzo I. He would become known for his appetite for power, wealth, influence, and luxury. As a result, Lorenzo would attempt to extend his domain throughout northern and central Italy, a policy which will bring him into conflict with the other Italian city-states, such as Milan and Venice, as well as foreign nations such as France and Aragon.

1476


In Muscovy, Grand Prince Ivan III continued his wide-scale innovations and reforms. The grand prince continually brought in Western and Central European architects, engineers, scientists, writers, and military mercenaries. Using these men, he would continue to bring his princedom up to the standards of Western Europe. Ivan III established a series of trade routes throughout his land, created a school of crafts and arts in Moscow, began a massive construction campaign to expand and revitalize the Kremlin, and introduced the printing press. He also remodeled his armed forces, introducing a conscription and levies system. Ivan III also converted the peasants into free workers, thus diverting Russia from a process of serfdom. All of these innovations would come into handy in his second and final campaign against Novograd.

The Ottomans constructed a massive military fortress on the islands of Crete and Cyprus, in order to strengthen their military position in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. They also began launching raids and pillaging operations into the Danubian Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. All of these actions further alarm numerous Western and Central European powers. As a result, Hungary (ruled by Mattheus Cornivus I), Moldavia (ruled by Stephen I), Wallachia (ruled by Vlad II the Impaler), Poland-Lithuania (ruled by Casmir IV), Bohemia (ruled by Frederick III), Portugal (ruled by Henry I), and Venice (ruled by Fernando II), formed a grand anti-Ottoman alliance. However, this is a foolish action on their part, since they would now attract the Ottomans grand attention. A great War would break out soon that would usher in Ottoman victory. In the meantime, the Sultan of the Hafsids submitted to Ottoman dominance and rule.

Portugal launched a second expedition to the "lands of the Indian riches" (India). This expedition was again commanded by Dias, now a Portuguese Admiral and nobleman. The expedition was even larger then the first one, consisting of nearly 50 vessels, including 8 ships of the first line and 20 ships of the second line. The king, in order to build up such a massive expedition, had conducted a massive construction effort at the coast. By the end of the year, the expedition was sailing down the coast of Africa.

1478


Grand Prince Ivan III of Muscovy launched his final campaign against the northern principality of Novograd. For years, he had been eying the remainder of that state, of which he had already conquered half in 1471. Ivan had two reasons for launching his second and final invasion of Novograd: one, Novogradian envoys had acknolweged him as their sovereign, instead of as a foreign prince; second, the Novogradians had threatened to ally themselves with Casimir IV, King of Poland, in a attempt to regain their lost lands and to curb Muscovy's increasing power and strength. Ivan decided to eliminate this possible threat before it budded. Muscovite armies swarmed into Novograd, even besieging the city itself. Finally, the Novogradian government surrendered and the Archbishop of Novograd signed a document, seceeding all of Novograd's remaining lands to Muscovy. Ivan thereafter claimed the title of "grand prince of all the Rus", since he was now the ruler of the largest and most dominant Russian state, and conducted a victory celebration in Moscow and in Novograd.

Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand I of Castile-Aragon (Spain), continued their internal projects. The King and Queen reorganized the Royal Council, which was a powerful body of civil and judicial administration. Previously, the members of the council had wielded considerable influence and authority. The Council was divided into two overlapping categories, which provided for great ineffiency in government administration. Isabella and Ferdinand placed the Council under direct Royal supervision, eliminated the division categories, and reduced the Council to a mere consulative and advisory board, similar to the Royal Advisory Council of Muscovy or the Privy Council of Britain. The monarchs also began to rely on professional and loyal administrators and advisors, rather then on corrupt and rude noblemen and courtiers. The Catholic Monarchs also established the Council of State, responsible for foreign relations and diplolmatic embassies.

In the Holy Roman Empire, Emperor Maximillian I finally came of age, and as a result the Imperial Board of Councilors, which had acted as the regency council of the Empire, surrendered it's regency duties to the Emperor. Maximillian I was determined to extend the power and influence of the Hapsburgs into numerous other territories throughout Europe, especially Burgundy, Switzerland, Hungary, and the Italian city states. However, this policy will bring him into direct confrontation with numerous countries, including Bohemia, which was now virtually independent of Hapsburg authority, as well as Venice, Genoa, and the Swiss Confederacy.

In Genoa, Prince Lorenzo I began his own internal political reforms, similar to those that occurred in Muscovy, in Britain, and in the Spanish Kingdoms. Lorenzo I primarily codified his reforms in decrees and proclamations, thus allowing for clarification and easy interpetition. For one, he assured his supreme authority over the minor Genose noblemen, courtiers, and merchants. He placed the nobilty under his direct supervision, reduced their considerable privileges and rights, and established a Commission to supervise and control their estates and properties. Lorenzo restricted the rights of the merchants in rural areas, raised taxes considerably, and established a Commission to maintain their affairs. He also forced most of the noblemen to reside at his court, reducing them to ceremonial courtiers. All of these actions thus further increased and insured his authority over his realm.

1480


The Ottoman Empire launched a massive offensive in the East, against the Empire of Turkish Persia, which in the preceding decade had ascended to predominance and control over the remaining Muslim and Turkish emirates. Emperor Suleiman I sought to gain control of the region of Mesopotamia, which had once been a province of the ancient Roman Empire. This would further consolidate his prestige, influence, and wealth. However, the European Grand Alliance, seeing how the Ottomans were distracted to the East, decided to strike. Hungary, Wallachia, and Moldavia attacked the Ottoman territories in the Balkans, Poland-Lithuania assaulted the Crimean Khanate, Venice assaulted Greece and the Ottoman bases in the Mediterranean Sea, while Portugal struck in North Africa. The Ottomans, however, will react with overwhelming force. They quickly conclude their campaign in the East, signing the Treaty of Nasira with the Persians, extending their territory to the Euphrates River. The Ottomans then began organizing their armies to counter the Grand Alliance. They would be assisted by their puppets, the Crimeans, the Georgians, and the Hafsids.

At the same time of the outbreak of the First Great Ottoman War, Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire, foolishly launched a war against the Swiss Confederacy. The reason the Emperor did so was to extend the territory of the Hapsburgs and to increase his own power, wealth, and influence. However, he had acted foolishly, not even considering how his decision could affect manners. The Swiss states aligned themselves in a military confederation to confront the Emperor's army. By the end of the year, the Hapsburg and Swiss armies were bogged down in heavy combat.

Tsar Ivan III of Muscovy subordinated the Principality of Pskov into a Muscovite protectorate. He also reduced the principalities of Tver and Ryazan, the other remaining independent Russian principalities, into puppet states as well. These steps were to increase and strengthen the already great dominance of Muscovy in Russian affairs. The next few years would see the elimination of the remaining independent Russian principalities, thus seeing the consolidation of all of the Russians under Muscovite rule.

1481
In Muscovy, Grand Prince Ivan III constructed in Moscow the Cathederal of the Assumption. The Cathederal was designed by Artolis Bartelli, a renowned Italian architect and engineer. The Cathederal's revolutionary design would inspire furhter cathederals and structures all across Russia. The Cathederal would come to be the place where all future Grand Princes, and eventually Tsars, Emperors, and Empresses of Russia are to be crowned. Anyways, the Grand Prince himself presided over the dedication ceremony.

A large Ottoman army of 260,000, commanded and led by Suleiman I himself, encountered a combined Hungarian-Bohemian-Polish-Lithuanian-Venician-Portugese army of nearly 300,000 commanded by King Matthus Cornivus of Hungary, King Casimir IV of Poland-Lithuania, and Duke Ferrando II of Venice. The Grand Alliance army had advanced greatly into Ottoman territory, having occupied land and devestated cities and villages in it's wake. However, their reign of success would be coming to a end. The armies confronted each-other near Sarid, a small village near Athens. There, Suleiman I defeated Matthus Cornivus, Casimir IV, and Ferrando II in the grand Battle of Sarid. This victory decidied the rest of the war. The Ottomans threw the Grand Allies out of their territory, and then began preparing for their own string of offensives.

In Spain, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand I began a reorganization and expansion of the joint Spanish military. They expanded the military levies system, reorganized the command, and established a stable supply reserve. Their reasons for doing so where to prepare for a planned campaign against the Turkish Emirate of Grenada to the south-east. Grenada was the final remant of the Al-Andalus Sultanate, a Islamic state in Spain which had been established by the Moors in the 700s. The Reconquista, conducted by Catholic Spanish monarchs, had been going on for the past eight centuries. Isabella and Ferdinand intended to finally bring it to a end and thus consolidate their control of all of present-day Spain.

1482


In Russia, Grand Prince Ivan III further extended the territory and power of Muscovy. The Grand Prince annexed the remainder of Ryazan, which had lost almost all of its autonomy already to Muscovite authorities. The Grand Prince exiled the last Prince of Ryazan to the East, more particularly to the Khanate of Kazan, confiscated the lands and properties of most of the Ryazan nobles, and consolidated his authority in his newly annexed lands. Only Tver and Pskov remained outside of Muscovite control, and they too would be extinguished by the end of the decade.

The Ottoman Empire launched it's own string of offensives against the Great Alliance, in retaliation for the failed invasion which had been ended and defeated a year before. These offensives were personally commanded by the Ottoman Emperor himself. Ottoman forces assaulted the Polish-Lithuanian territories on the Black Sea Coast, the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, southern Hungary, as well as Venice's outermost remaining islands. Ottoman forces traversed the territory of the Zayynanids, a non-incorporated Ottoman ally, attacking the Portuguese North African territories. By the end of the year, all of these lands had fallen to the Ottomans, to the great surprise of the Grand Alliance. The Ottomans' key to success was their large, powerful, and "modern" army. They also had a large and powerful navy. Moldavia and Wallachia were made into incorporated Ottoman puppet principalities, given to Suleiman I's brothers. The Black Sea was now a Ottoman lake. Shortly after the campaigns, the Ottomans betrayed their Zayynaid allies, incorporating their territory directly into the Empire.

In Spain, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand finally launched their long-awaited offensive against the Emirate of Grenada in the South. More then 60,0000 Castillian-Aragonese troops flooded into the Grenadian territories. However, the Emirate of Grenada had a small, but efficiently organized military, well-organized and large military defenses and fortresses, and a great amount of money. They also received military support from the Ottoman Empire, which sent 18,000 professional Janssaries. The Spanish armies are quickly halted. It will take the Catholic Monarchs ten years to conquer Grenada.

In France, King Louis XI the Prudent, well known for his centralization of the French government and his internal reforms, suffered a heart attack in his personal bedchambers and died. He had reigned for 18 years. Louis XI would be succeeded by his son, who became King Charles VIII of France. Charles will become known for instigating the 50-year long Italian Wars, which will leave France in disarray and debt to be fixed by his successors. Charles is crowned by the Archbishop of Rheims in Paris.

1483


In Switzerland, the forces of Emperor Maximilian I were defeated by a army of the Swiss Confederation at the Battle of Zurich. As a result of their victory, the Swiss annexed the Hapsburg territories between their Confederation and the Holy Roman Empire proper. As such, the Hapsburgs were forced to come to the treaty table. The Treaty of Zurich, negotiated by British mediators (Britain was beginning to take a more active position on the continent), confirmed the Swiss annexation of the aforementioned territories. Maximilian I also granted the Swiss Confederation considerable immunity from Imperial taxes, military levies, and legislation, although Switzerland still officially remained a province of the Holy Roman Empire. The loss of the Swiss-Hapsburg War was a blow to Maximillian's ambitions.

At the same time, the naval forces of the Grand Alliance were scattered and defeated by Ottoman Admiral Haraydan Barbarossa at the Battle of Aegis. As a result, the First Great Ottoman War was wounding to a end. The Grand Alliance were also forced to come to the peace table with the Ottomans. Negotiations, again mediated by British diplomats, were conducted at Karsolaw, a small village in Ottoman-occupied South Hungary. The result was the Treaty of Karsolaw. In the Treaty, Poland-Lithuania seceded to the Ottomans it's Black Sea coastal territories, while Portugal seceded Portuguese North Africa, Hungary it's southern territories, and Venice it's outermost islands. The Ottoman suzerainty and control of Wallachia and Moldavia was also recognized. The Grand Alliance were forced to downscale the strength of their armed forces and to pay reparations to the Ottomans. Emperor Suleiman I thus had gained his greatest victory. The rest of his reign will be relatively peaceful, focused on domestic and economic affairs. However, the Alliance will seek revenge, which will cause diplomatic relations to be on fragile ground for the next century.

Duke Lorenzo I of Genoa begins to extend the territory of his realm, primarily through marriage and diplomatic endeavors. The Duke marries the daughter of the Duke of Savoy, which insured him a place in the line of succession of that Italian state. He also established a alliance with the Italian states of Siena and Florence. However, his actions are viewed warily by Milan, Venice, and France.

1484
In Spain, Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand I instigated the Spanish Inquisition. They obtained a papal bull from the Pope to this effect. The Catholic Monarchs had two reasons for doing so: one, to suppress religious dissent in the ongoing war against Grenada, and two, to consolidate their own religious authority and security. The Inquisition would be lead by Tomas de Torquemada, the Queen's childhood confessor and priest. Torquemada was absolutely ruthless and brutal, using every method to crack down on religious dissent. The Inquisition will become feared across Europe.

In Britain, Queen Mary I's health began to suffer. The queen's mental condition had degraded considerably in the past six years, and she had never been completely healthy. As such, the Privy Council of Britain began preparing for the ascension of Mary's eldest son, Henry, who by then was 17 years old. Henry dipped himself into crash courses about British government, law, and diplomacy. Before then, he had been primarily interested in sports and the arts. But he would be ready. By the end of the year, Mary is near death.

Emperor Maximilian I's wife, Duchess Mary of Burgundy, died from breast cancer. The Emperor was grieved at his wife's death, for she had been the love and joy of his love. Despite this, Maximilian recovered from his loss and immediately began to assert Hapsburg authority in Burgundy. He made his 2-year old son Philip the Duke of Burgundy. This will be a stepping-stone to eventually incorporating the Burgundian territories into the Hapsburg lands.

1485


In Britain, Queen Mary I, after a reign of 20 years, died in her sleep, in her bedchambers. Her dead body was discovered by one of her closest servants. Her eldest son, Henry, became King Henry VII of Britain. Since Henry had reached the age of 18 a few days before the death of his mother, the Queen, no regency for him was required, as had been feared by many. Henry's reign would see increased British involvement on the continent, more so then the reigns of his mother, grandmother, and grandfather, as well British expeditions to the New World, which would see the beginning of the British Colonial Empire. He would also be noted for his finanical and judicial reforms. Henry was crowned at Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of Canterbury.

In the Ottoman Empire, Suleiman I resumed his domestic innovations and reforms, which had been halted by the First Great Ottoman War against the Grand Alliance. The Emperor issued a Legal Code of Criminal and Economic Justice (Yasal cezai ve ekonomik adalet kodu), which established most of the framework of the Ottoman Empire's economic and criminal justice systems. The code established a system of courts and judicial tribunals for the trying and punishment of various crimes, including rape, murder, and robbery. The code also established a system of tribunals for the punishment of tax evasion or mismanagement, and placed strict regulations on the processes of the economy. Suleiman I also issued a further compilation of royal decrees and edicts between 1473 and 1485, and decreed that every Ottoman Emperor after him would be obliged to issue such a compilation every ten years. The Emperor also issued the Statue of Local Government of the Ottoman Empire (Heykel yerel Osmanlı imparatorluk hükümeti). This statue completely reorganized the local and regional government organization of the Ottoman Empire, which had previously been disorganized and inefficient. Under the statue, the Ottoman Empire's direct territories (or territories besides puppet states) was divided into thirty districts, or bucaks. Each district was further subdivided into eight communes, or yerel idares. Each district would have a governor and a Council, appointed and dismissed directly by the Emperor. The governor would be assisted by a recorder of state, a general of garrisons, and a treasurer. Each commune would have a commissioner, assisted by his own Council of Advisers. The puppet states of the Empire (the Hafsid Sultanate, the Crimean Khanate, the Kingdom of Georgia, and the Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia) would all have their own government systems, subject to Ottoman control and influence. This code greatly improved Ottoman government administration.

In Spain, King Ferdinand I and Queen Isabella I continued their war against the Emirate of Grenada. For the first three years of the war, the fighting had been extremely bogged down and limited. Grenada had, with it's superior military organization and the assistance of the Ottomans, effectively resisted the Spanish invasion forces and held on. However, Suleiman I, who was now diverting his attention to the internal affairs of his Empire, began to considerably reduce aid to Grenada. Thus Grenadian resistance weakened. By the end of the year, the Catholic Monarchs had managed to capture parts of the western half of Grenada.

In Russia, Grand Prince Ivan III further extended the territory of Muscovy. The grand prince annexed the Principality of Tver, which had been the home of his first wife, Princess Maria, who had died in 1467. Immediately, Ivan III imposed his authority in Tver. The principality's capital city, of the same name, was occupied by Muscovite forces, the Prince of Tver was exiled to north-eastern Muscovy, and the Tverian government was dispersed. With the Muscovite annexation of Tver, only one other Russian state remained outside of Muscovite control: Pskov. That too would be destroyed by the end of the decade.

1486
During all of this time, covering the various wars and changes occurring throughout Europe, the Renassiance, which had begun in Italy, was in full swing and thriving. The Middle Ages were coming to a close by this time, as the eventual discovery of the Americas was inching ever closer. The Renassiance had caused great cultural, economic, and political changes all across Europe. Serfdom in most European nations had completely or almost completely disappeared. The Renassiance had inspired a bloom in the arts and sciences, and was especially prevalent in the Italian city-states (of course), Muscovy, Britain, France, the Spanish Kingdoms, the Holy Roman Empire, and even the Ottoman Empire. Also, most monarchs had taken steps to reduce the influence of the nobility and strengthen their own stand.

King Henry VII of Britain married the love of his life, the Duchess Elizabeth of York. The two had been close ever since they were children, and had been exchanging love letters for some time. The marriage occurred at Westminster Abbey, and was administered by the Archbishop of Canterbury. In time, the couple will have six children: Arthur (born 1487), Mary (born 1489), Margaret (born 1491), Elizabeth (born 1492), Henry (born 1493), and Richard (born 1495). All of these will also be married into royal houses across Europe. It must be noted that the British Royal Family was related to the royal families of Aragon, Castile, France, Portugal, and Denmark, due to the marriages of the children of King Henry VI and Queen Margaret I.