Alternate World History Timeline From 1745

This is yet another timeline, that begins during the mid-18th century, in the year 1745. This timeline will feature some divergences from the real world, including the earlier modernization of Russia, the earlier expansion of the British Empire, and changes in other parts of the world as well, especially in Europe. This timeline is derived from the Alternate History of Europe Timeline 1430, that is also currently in progress. I will try to work on both timelines equally. However, a difference concerning Russia will have occurred 20 years before this timeline began (ie, the addition of another living daughter for Peter the Great, named Natalia, born 1721) as well.

=First 30 Years of Timeline (1745-1775)=

1745


On January 16, in the Empire of Russia, a coup is launched against the Russian Empress, Elizabeth I. The coup is engineered by Princess Natalia Romanov, the younger sister of Elizabeth and the youngest child of Peter the Great and Catherine I of Russia. Natalia had been born on January 18, 1721. She had matured into a beautiful, intelligent, and energetic young woman. She was well-educated and was fluent in various other languages besides her native Russian, including English, French, Dutch, German, and Italian. And she had all the qualities of a great ruler as well. She was kind, patient, and considerate. However, her sister, the Empress Elizabeth, was lazy, somewhat intellectually ignorant, impatient, and self-indulgent. She was more concerned about holding balls and parties then about looking after the welfare of her empire. She was also rumored to have a large flock of lovers, both male and female. Elizabeth's heir, the Grand Duke Peter, was ill-tempered, unattractive, mentally deficient, and cruel. Natalia despised this, and also wished to reform and strengthen Russia. Thus, with the support of various guards officers and courtiers, who also had similar ideas of reform, she overthrew Elizabeth and was proclaimed empress of Russia by the Governing Senate. The new Empress Natalia banished her sister and Peter to Siberia. She crowned herself Empress in the Assumption Cathedral, in Moscow, on 22 September, and issued a ascension manifesto which stated her intentions "to reform my country and bring benefits to all of my subjects." Natalia would eventually become one of Russia, and the world's, greatest monarchs.

Elsewhere, Britain, France, Prussia, Austria, and Spain all signed the Treaty of Aachen on 3 June, which thus brought a end to the War of the Austrian Succession, which had been raging since 1740. As a result of the treaty, Prussia's possession of Silesia was recognized and a general quo ante bellum peace was imposed amongst all the other powers. The Austrian Archduchess Maria Theressa's husband, Francis, was recognized as the Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick the Great of Prussia, who had ascended the throne in 1740, was very pleased about the treaty. However, his enemy in the war, Maria Theresa, was displeased, and vowed to reverse the terms of the treaty when she was able.

Meanwhile, in Great Britain, William Pitt Sr. became the new British Prime Minister through general elections, replacing the previous prime minister Henry Pellham, who had lost favor with the king, George II. Pitt, a Imperialist, was determined to extend yet further Britain's power and influence throughout numerous regions of the world. He also wanted to firmly combine Ireland, a possession of the British crown, with Great Britain itself, into one Union consisting of all the British Isles. If this happened, he realized, Britain would become yet more powerful and unified. As such, Prime Minister Pitt began making further plans for this goal to be achieved.

1746


After a year of exhaustive and extensive work, Pitt finally succeeded in his goals. George II created a diplomatic congress consisting of representatives from both Great Britain and Ireland. The directive which was given to them was to "proceed most diligently, in the name of his most Brittanic and most Irish Majesty, towards matters of union between his grand realms of Great Britain and Ireland". Pitt himself was the head of the British delegation. The representatives, who convened on 19 February, did as told and worked with great effort. After several months of wrangling and argument, they finally drafted the Acts of Union, 1746 on 6 June. The Acts were then submitted to the British and Irish Parliaments. The Irish Parliament ratified the Acts on 17 June, since most of the members of that parliament were in favor for union with Great Britain. However, the British Parliament took longer. While the Commons were in favor of the Acts and approved them, most members of the Lords were reluctant, particularly over the guarantee of Emancipation for Irish Catholics. However, after the King (urged by Pitt) threatened to create several new peers to vote in favor of the Acts, the Lords quickly rushed to ratify the Acts on 14 July. Finally, on 18 July George II granted the Royal Assent to the Acts, which came into effect on the 1st of December.

The Acts' provisions were as follows:


 * From 1 December 1746, and for ever after, the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland would be unified into one kingdom styled the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The flag of Ireland, Saint Patrick's Cross, would be combined with the flag of Great Britain to become the Union Jack. All other ensigns, seals, and symbols for the new Union would basically be those of Great Britain.


 * Ireland was granted 100 seats in the House of Commons and 32 seats in the House of Lords; 28 representative peers elected for life and the four highest clergymen of the Church of Ireland. All of the rules and procedures of the new Parliament of the United Kingdom would be those carried over from the Parliament of Great Britain. Also, the legal and judicial union of England, Wales, and Ireland was guaranteed.


 * A unified Protestant church, the United Church of England and Ireland was created. All of the rituals and ceremonies of the Church of England would become those of the new Unified Church. However, free religion, the right to vote and hold public office, and the right to hold and sell property was guaranteed to all Catholics (Catholic Emancipation) and the independence of the Church of Scotland was guaranteed as well.


 * The remaining articles created a trade and customs union between Britain and Ireland and stipulated that Ireland would have to contribute two-seventeenths of the expenditure of the United Kingdom, based off the ratio of British to Irish trade and commerical profits.

Certain European powers, such as France and Spain, were alarmed by the existence of the new United Kingdom, believing that it was even more powerful (a belief which proved true). However, most European powers quickly recognized the existence of the newly expanded version of Britain.

In Russia, Empress Natalia I began her reforms. The empress was determined to continue the reforms of her father Peter the Great, to modernize and strengthen Russia. She had a firm determination towards this goal and a effective will to carry this out. The Empress was supported by the Imperial Chancellor, Mikhail Bestauvev, a Enlightened man who also believed firmly in economic, social, cultural, and military reform. Natalia began by instigating various innovations concerning religion and culture. The Empress issued a decree on 4 March (Old Style) that adopted the Gregorian Calendar as the official calendar of the Russian Empire. Thus March 4 Old Style was immediately followed by March 16 New Style. The decree thus indicated her intention to bring Russia in line with Western Europe. Natalia also issued a manifesto that proclaimed official religious freedom for all of the subjects of her empire. Russian traditionalists and religious conservatives were alarmed at this manifesto, believing it to be "the Devil's work", but the Empress ignored them. Thus restrictions that had been placed on the Jews by Elizabeth were removed, as were restrictions on Old Believers imposed by Peter the Great and various Muscovite tsars. This gained her the support of various non-Orthodox religious groups.

In Austria, Archduchess-Queen Maria Theresa began her own series of reforms. The reason the young sovereign did so was to strengthen Austria's economy and military, to prepare it for a future war with Prussia. Maria Theresa realized that Austria had lost the War of the Austrian Succession with Prussia because her military was in inferior condition and because Austria was a heterogeneous dominion, consisting of not only the arch-duchy of Austria itself, but also the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia, as well the possessions in Belgium and Italy. She decided to improve on this. Assisted by her councilors, the archduchess issued the Taxation Codes of the Dominions of Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, and Croatia. The codes, all of which consisted of the same content, with name reference and other matters modified, established a Bureau of Taxation to collect and dispense taxes, reorganized the imperial treasury, and overhauled many currently existing taxes. The codes were a great success, and immediately tripled Austria's tax revenue.

In France, King Louis XV of France had a change of heart. The king, who until this point of time had been lavishing gifts on his mistresses and had ignored the affairs of state, began to realize that in order for France to become a worthy opponent of Britain, it would have to instigate serious domestic reform. As such, the king became involved in government and appointed a council of advisers, who would assist him in his reform. He issued a edict which ended the clergy's exemption from paying taxes, a first step towards reforming French society.

1747


In Prussia, Frederick the Great also began instigating his own reforms as well. He wanted to secure Prussia's new position as a ascending European power and also wanted to bring modernization. As such, Frederick began promoting the arts and culture. The king issued a edict that proclaimed limited religious toleration for his subjects, including some of the Jews. He recruited Enlightenment scientists, musicians, writers, doctors, and philosophers into his kingdom, began construction on a Rococo-style palace, and expanded the Prussian Academy of the Sciences. Frederick's actions thus made Prussia more culturally diverse, and would be followed closely by Natalia the Great in Russia.

In Britain, Prime Minister Pitt pushed the India Governance Act through the Parliament. The Act placed heavy restrictions on the powers and privileges of the British East India Company, which effectively controlled Britain's possessions and interests in India. The Act created the office of Governor-Supervisor of the Company, who would be responsible for supervising and directing the affairs and relations of the East India Company. The act also incorporated most of the Company's armed forces into the British Army, creating the British Indian Army. This was a precursor to eventually incorporating the Company's possessions completely into the British Empire.

In Russia, the Empress Natalia began to patronize the arts, sciences, and education as well. The Empress believed, rightly, that her people needed to be educated in order for Russia to become a truly modernized country. As such, she worked towards that goal. The Empress issued a statue that established in Saint Petersburg the Smolenskian Institute, to educate young girls of the nobility, merchants, and townsmen. She intended to eventually extend attendance to peasant girls as well. Natalia herself wrote the institute's manual, and she banned the use of corporal punishment by the institute. Also, like Frederick, Natalia began to recruit Enlightenment writers, scientists, doctors, thinkers, and philosophers into Russia as well. Among those she recruited included Denis Diderot, a young and energetic writer, and Fransisco Rousseau, a young mathematician and astronomer. These two men would become instrumental to Russia's future cultural development.

Meanwhile, way on the other side of the world, in Japan, a new family of samurai ascended to the shogunate of Japan: the Kamuraki. Sediki Kamuraki, the head of the family and the new shogun, was a energetic and ambitious man. He had heard rumors of countries in Europe, "on the other side of the great earthly realm", who had advanced cultures, economies, and militaries. Kamuraki became determined for Japan to develop the same, and would become the man responsible for modernizing Japan and opening her to the world. In time, he would become one of Japan's greatest rulers. This will eventually become important.

1748


In Russia, Empress Natalia conducted two primary actions involving serfdom and exploration. First, the Empress provided finanical support to a exploration expedition that was commanded by Gregory Dezhnyov, a ancestor of the man who had originally crossed the Bering Strait a hundred years prior. The expedition colonized the remainder of the Kamchatka Pennisula for the Russian Empire, thus completing the colonization of Siberia. This expedition also colonized various Arctic islands as well. The reason that the Empress sponsored this expedition was because she believed that Russia needed to have firm control over the Bering Strait and a complete frontier in that region. Second, she instigated her first measure against serfdom. Serfdom, a institution which had existed in Russia since the late 1640s, remained strong just as it was dying out in the rest of Europe. It held most of the Russian population in bondage. Natalia, having gone on a trip to Western Europe before becoming empress, believed that it was completely inhumane and a strong factor in Russia's primitive and underdeveloped economic condition. As such, she was determined to gradually phase it out. Thus she issued the Statue for the Preservation of the Rights of the Peasants, which guaranteed the rights and privileges of all peasants, in the possession of either the state, the church, or the nobility and gentry. The statue allowed peasants to voice petitions and grievances to their masters, banned the use of corporal punishment against them, and granted them Sunday as a day of rest and relaxation. The statue prohibited the nobility from breaking up peasant families and also obliged them to take the welfare of their serfs into consideration. The statue was resented by the nobility, but was surprisingly effective.

In Prussia, King Frederick continued his reforms as well. The king of Prussia now focused much of his attention on the economic condition of Prussia. Frederick believed that in order for Prussia to strengthen her position as a European power, she needed to have a developed economy. Thus the king issued the General Directive on Economic Development, which encouraged economic development and modernization. The directive provided for the creation of canals, the establishment of new trading settlements and posts, and the development of industries in silk, porcelain, and other goods. Frederick drained the marshes of Oderburch and executed his directive with great energy and speed. Although he believed that serfdom was necessary for orderly discipline and rule in Prussia, he also decided that the peasants could be relieved to some extent. As such, he issued a decree, similar to the Russian statue, that provided for the fair treatment of serfs and gave them a rest day.

In Austria-Hungary, Queen-Archduchess Maria Theresa also continued her innovations. The Archduchess now worked towards centralization of her Austrian, Bohemian, Hungarian, and Croatian dominions, while also establishing effective separate administrations for Austria's Italian and Belgian possessions. As such, Maria Theresa, along with her husband Francis, Holy Roman Emperor and co-ruler of the Austrian dominions, issued a edict which established the Council of State. The council was to be consisted of thirty members, with ten from Austria, ten from Hungary, five from Bohemia, and five from Croatia. The chancellors of Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, and Croatia were all part of the council, as were the ministers of foreign affairs, finance, and justice for all the realms. The Council's responsibility was to advise the Queen-Archduchess on affairs of state, run the governments of all the dominions on a daily basis, and serve as the main administrative body. Maria Theresa also issued a order which unified the Austrian and Bohemian administrations into one body.

Meanwhile, in Japan, Shogun Kamuraki decided that in order for him to effectively begin his innovations and reforms within Japan, he needed to first bring the nobility and daimyo under control. With the support of both the military of the state and his family's own personal army, Kamuraki issued a decree that stripped the daimyo of most of their lands, titles, and privileges. Instead, Japan was reorganized into fifty prefectures, each one with a governor and a executive council, and a new nobility, loyal to the Shogun and the State, was created. The old daimyo attempted to revolt, but were suppressed. Kamuraki was thus on his way to transforming Japan into a major Asian power.

1749


In Prussia, King Frederick began a reorganization of Prussia's local administration. The king believed that his realm, which was divided into three distinct parts, needed to have a uniform local administration. As such, Frederick issued the Statue on Local Administration of the Kingdom in Prussia and the Electorate of Brandenburg on 18 April, which completely overhauled Prussia's local administration. The statue divided Prussia into ten provinces, each province further subdivided into twenty districts. Each province would have a governor and a military garrison commander, both appointed and dismissed by the king at will. The governor would be assisted by a provincial secretary of state and a executive council, the council having the authority to dispense taxes in that province. Each district in turn, would have a sub-governor and a district council of advisers. The district governors would answer to the provincial governors, who in turn would answer to the King. The statue proved effective and increased the strength of Prussia's government.

In Russia, Empress Natalia intensified her patronization of the arts and sciences. The Empress removed most censorship restrictions and freely encouraged writers and publishers to print out virtually any work they wanted. This was in contrast with the Empress's father, Peter the Great, who had exerted harsh state control over the media. Natalia's free encouragement and removal of restrictions allowed Russia's media to blossom. Ambitious and energetic young writers, many of whom had been educated in Western and Central Europe, began printing pamphlets, novels, and books in large numbers, on historical, medical, scientific, and fictional subjects. Encouraged directly by the Empress, Denis Diderot (who had moved to Russia from France as should be recalled) published the first twenty articles of what was to become the Enclyopedie. The articles were written by him and Rousseau. The Enclyopedie quickly became popular across Europe, and was reprinted in France, Britain, and Prussia, although not in stern Austria. The Empress also established the Saint Petersburg Public Theater, and provided it generous finanical support. Admission to the theater was open to all people from the status of free laborman up.

In Austria, Queen-Archduchess Maria Theresa continued her own reforms. She now turned her attention to the military of her dominions. Although the Archduchess had little knowledge of her military and was considered a embarrassment in this respect by her military generals and advisers, she had a fond concern for the welfare and well-being of her soldiers and the professionalism of her forces. As such, the Archduchess, with the support of French and Dutch military experts, began to build up her navy. She created a formal conscription system, raised taxes concerning the military, issued a discipline code, and established foundries and factories (especially in Austria proper and Bohemia), to provide equipment, weapons, and supplies for her army. The soldiers became very fond of their sovereign, because she was concerned about them. Maria Theresa also abolished most forms of corporal punishment within the military as well.

In France, Louis XV resumed his own reforms. The French king moved cautiously and slowly, and with great reason: the Ancient Regime form of government in France itself posed a great obstacle to the king, since the nobility and the clergy still wielded considerable power, influence, and privilege. The local parlements of France had the ability to nullify or block any royal decree or edict of the king at will. As such, Louis decided to slowly implement reforms. He issued a decree which appointed new governeurs for all of the provinces of France. These men, loyal to the king and only the King, would help counterbalance the parlements and impose the king's will on the local level. The king also issued a edict which required the nobility to provide to the Crown annual reports of their lands and incomes. This edict thus provided the King a discrete way to keep a watch for the nobles' wealth, and to maintain them within proper limits.

Meanwhile, both Spain and Portugal began applying pressure on the Pope, Benedict XIV, to implement measures that would eliminate the Society of the Jesuits. The Catholic monarchs of both nations wanted to insure their religious authority in their domains and to also incorporate the vast lands of the Amazon and inner America into their Empires. The native peoples and those lands had been protected by Jesuit missionaries and priests. The Pope, a bold and determined man, refused the requests of Spain and Portugal and instead issued a papal bull which reaffirmed the existence of the Jesuits. It will take some time before the Spanish and Portuguese will finally be able to accomplish their goals. But meanwhile, the Spanish viceroy of Peru pushed into southern Argentina, claiming those territories for Spain.

In China, the Qianlong Emperor suddenly came down sick with a severe form of fever. The doctors of the Emperor tried everything they could to save him, but their efforts were in vain. The Emperor died on June 13. His eldest surviving son, the Crown Prince Yongzhang, ascended to the throne as the Youhungzhang Emperor. The Youhungzhang Emperor was a ambitious, determined, and energetic young man. He had heard about Western European nations and how they were able to prosper with modern economies, militaries, and societies. The Youhungzhang Emperor became determined to transfer this to China, and to drop customs and traditions which he considered "archaic".

And finally, in Japan, the Shogun, Kamuraki, removed the ban on foreign commerce and contact that had been imposed by the previous shogunate dynasty over the course of the 17th century. The removal of the contact ban was vital in opening Japan up to the rest of Asia. Kamuraki established official relations with China, which was received warmly by the Youhungzhang Emperor, and also dispatched a mission to establish diplomatic relations with Russia. The Shogun encouraged commerce and trade with other nations or colonies in Asia and also recommenced the construction of Japanese naval vessels.

1751


Queen/Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria terminated the Austrian alliance with Britain. The reason that the Archduchess did so was because she believed that Britain had provided little assistance to Austria during the War of the Austrian Succession, despite the facts that British forces had tied French troops in Germany and that British finanical support had kept Austria in the war. Maria Theresa, now, ironically, turned to France for a alliance. After intensive negotiations, France and the Hapsburg Empire signed the Treaty of Versailles on 7 March. Under the terms of the treaty, France and the Hapsburg Dominions would assist each other in times of war and would co-coordinate military operations. Maria Theresa had just ignited the "Diplomatic Revolution", which would see the creation of new alliances as a precursor to a new war.

Meanwhile, the British Parliament passed two vital acts this year, both of which had been drafted by Prime Minister Pitt. The first of these acts, the Calendar Act of 1751, provided that the United Kingdom and her possessions would adopt the Gregorian Calendar from the 1st of January 1752 onwards, after a century and a half of refusal to do so. Pitt pushed this act through because he believed that it would be a symbolic measure of Britain's "modern status". The second of the Acts was the Slave Trade Regulations Act. The Act placed a tax of thirty Pounds per slave imported into Britain's possessions and also set out extensive and detailed regulations about the treatment and transportation of African captives during the Middle Passage. This act was a attempt by Pitt, who despised the slave trade, to relax the burdens upon those Africans being imported. It was accepted in Britain, but unpopular in the southern part of the Thirteen Colonies.

In Prussia, King Frederick II became alarmed by Austria's new alliance with France. As such, he decided to strengthen the Prussian military and make preparations in case of war. The king issued a proclamation which conscripted 20,000 young Prussian men between the ages of 18 and 24 into the Army. These men were organized into new units, consolidated into garrisons, and given weapons and uniforms. Frederick II constructed a series of new forts and military defenses in Silesia, established a series of military foundries and factories, and reorganized the military command structure. But at the same time as he made these military preparations, he also continued to promote culture, personally producing several works of poetry, establishing a Academy of the Arts, and inviting Voltaire to Prussia.

In Russia, Empress Natalia launched a great construction campaign in Moscow, the former Russian capital and the Empire's second largest city. This campaign was meant to demonstrate on how the Empress was gradually reforming and modernizing Russia, and on how she was finally concluding the stamping out of archaic customs and traditions began by her father, Peter the Great. Bartholomeo Rastrilleri, a Italian architect who had been recruited by Empress Elizabeth, supervised the campaign. The campaign, which will take two years to complete, completely reconstructs the Moscow Kremlin, realigns the street system of Moscow, digs a canal system for the city, and constructs a variety of Baroque and Rosocco-style palaces and residences. It will cost nearly 3,000,000 rubles. To pay for the campaign, and to also continue the process of binding the nobles to state control, the Empress levied taxes on the nobility, concerning their livestock, residences, and household goods. The nobles complain but do not resist.

In the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan Osman III suffered a "unfortunate accident". This accident was the poisoning of his food, a plot which had been carefully orchestrated by Osman's younger brother, Mustafa. Prince Mustafa was a ambitious and energetic man who direly wanted the throne and did not want to wait a long period of time to get it. Despite the efforts of his personal physician, Osman III died on June 1 and was succeeded by his brother as Sultan, who became Mustafa III. Mustafa was determined to reassert the authority of the Sultan over the Grand Vizier and to instigate reforms of the Ottoman military and economy, bringing them back up-to-date with the rest of Europe. However, he will have to fight a struggle in the Ottoman court to accomplish these goals.

The Youhungzhang Emperor, in China, began his own reforms as well. The Emperor believed that in order for him to proceed with the other reforms, he needed to reform China's culture and remove many archaic customs and traditions, both amongst his people and at the court. This would also extend to reforming diplomatic customs and rituals as well. The Emperor issued a decree which encouraged the importation and use of European dress. Any noble who was found to be wearing traditional Chinese clothing would be fined and his clothes ripped off. The Youhungzhang Emperor enforced this decree heavily, which proved unpopular amongst the nobility. However, they were in no position to resist. The Emperor himself, as well his advisers and courtiers, were among the first to adopt European dress, including powdered wigs. Also, he issued a edict which encouraged women to attend public occasions and, if unmarried, to socialize at such parties.

In Japan, Shogun Kamuraki conducted cultural reform similar to that in China as well. The Shogun issued a decree which forced all of the nobility and merchants to adopt modern European dress as well. Any noble found wearing traditional Japanese robes would be fined and imprisoned. The Shogun's decree also ended social isolation for women and prescribed European-style conditions governing marriage and family. Also, the Shogun began recuriting British and Dutch merchants, adventurers, and advisers into Japan, and he sponsored a expedition which colonized the remainder of the island of Hokkaido.

1752


In Austria, Queen-Archduchess Maria Theresa began a series of measures to impose state control over the Catholic Church within her realm. Although the Archduchess was a ardent Catholic, she firmly believed that the Church need not infringe on her autocratic authority. In accordance with this belief, the Archduchess issued a edict which banned the reading or importation of papal bulls into Austria without the approval of the government's Council of Morality, a body that would regulate public morals, values, and religious expression. The Archduchess made sure that the appointment and dismissal of archbishops, bishops, and abbots was firmly under her control. Despite this, she maintained the church's independent courts and it's control of medicine.

Frederick II of Prussia published The Responsibilities of a Sovereign, a pamphlet which promoted the idea of a autocratic Enlightened monarchy. The pamphlet, written by the king himself without assistance, argued that it was a sovereign's duty to "watch after his lamb", a comparison to Jesus's protection of "his flock" in the Bible. The sovereign ruler, Frederick claimed, had to be firm, but generous, guiding his people towards the right path. In order to conduct actions to benefit his kingdom, he needed to have absolute power. The pamphlet became widely circulated across Europe, from Portugal to Russia. It would inspire Natalia I in Russia and also, Mustafa III in the Ottoman Empire, to further reform.

King Joseph I of Portugal appointed Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, the former Portuguese ambassador to Britain, the Prime Minister of Portugal. Melo was a ambitious but ruthless man, who wanted to implement Enlightened reforms in Portugal, concerning civil, economic, governmental, ecclesiastical, and military affairs. Melo had read various Enlightened tracts and pamphlets, including works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Diderot, and believed firmly in reform. At the time of his appointment, Portugal was a weak nation, with a economy dependent on colonial Brazil and a ineffective military. Melo was determined to change this all, to make Portugal once again a worthy European power.

Spain and Portugal continue to apply considerable pressure on the Pope to disband the Society of Jesus. In Portugal, Prime Minister Melo, just shortly after being appointed to office, as described above, issued a government order that placed restrictions on the privileges and property of the Jesuits and brought them under state supervision. In Spain, the Spanish king, Ferdinand VI, engaged in various reform projects concerning the navy and arts, took time to issue a royal edict which also placed similar limitations on the rights of the Jesuits and imposed state supervision over them. The Pope heavily protested the Spanish and Portuguese actions, even considering bulls of excommunication against the kings of the two nations.

Empress Natalia I of Russia continued further her support of the arts and sciences. The Empress extended the availability of attendance at the Smolenskian Institute to peasant girls (with the approval of their masters, of course). She also continued to encourage writing and literature, providing generous finanical and official support that allowed Russian literature to blossom into new fields of creativity. By her ongoing construction campaigns in Moscow, the Empress built the Moscow Public Theater, with admittance open to all who lived in Moscow, regardless of social status. Reading the works of Montesquieu, she also began considering a extensive reform of the legal and judicial system of Russia as well, which was based upon a antiquated and archaic legal code of 1649.

Sultan Mustafa III of the Ottoman Empire began to gradually reacquire power for the Ottoman Crown. The Sultan gathered a personal base of supporters at court, involved himself in day-to-day affairs of the government, and required the Grand Vizier to act compliant and subordinate to him. He also began using his position as caliph of Islam to full effect, influencing appointments of Muslim priests and exerting control over Ottoman mosques and other religious structures. However, the Grand Vizier and his own base of supporters, despised the Sultan's actions and plotted to stop him. By the end of the year, internal governmental conflict would be breaking out.

The Youhungzhang Emperor decided that in order for China to strengthen her power and influence, her territorial boundaries must be extended. As such, the Emperor incorporated Tibet, a semi-independent Chinese protectorate, into the Qing Empire. A Chinese garrison was established in Lhasa, the Dali Lama and his advisers were arrested and executed, and Tibet was divided into thirteen provinces, each with a governor and a council, just like the other Chinese provinces were governed. Elsewhere, the Emperor incorporated Korea, a Chinese vassal state, into the Empire as well. Korea was divided into six provinces. All of these actions were popular with the military, thus securing their support.

1753
In the Americas, tensions began to develop that would eventually help contribute to the upcoming war between Britain and France. The French government, particularly King Louis XV, still undergoing his gradual reforms, believed that control of the disputed Ohio Country was vital to secure France's possessions in Louisiana and New Canada. As such, the French dispatched 8,000 troops to the Americas and began moving forces down from Montreal, establishing forts in western areas of Pennsylvania and Virginia claimed by the British. Britain, in alarmed response, began preparing a combined diplomatic-military mission to persuade the French to withdraw.

A devastating earthquake occurred in Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. The earthquake, with a magnitude of 9.2, struck right in the heart of the Portuguese capital. Several aftershocks, each in the range of 5.0-8.0, occurred after the main earthquake. The earthquake and its aftershocks caused considerable economic and property damage. 40,000 people died as a result of the main earthquake, with a further 10,000 from the aftershocks. Nearly ninety percent of the city was destroyed or severely damaged. Portugal's economy suffered severe losses, and the country became yet more dependent on the wealth and resources of Brazil. Prime Minister Melo undertook immediate relief and reconstruction efforts. Teams of volunteers, firefighters, and policemen were organized to maintain order and help in relief efforts. Camps for the homeless were established and the Portuguese Army was stationed in Lisbon to assist in reconstruction efforts. As a result of Melo's exhaustive relief and reconstruction efforts, the city will completely recover in about two years. Britain, Portugal's closest ally, provided ample finanical support to the Portuguese government.

Heinrich von Bruhl, the "Prime Minister" of Saxony and the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, ruling both of those territories in the name of the ineffective King Augustus III the Saxon, intensified his efforts at gathering a large amount of money, properties, and titles. Bruhl was a ineffective and lazy politician, who cared little for the affairs of either of the domains that he was entrusted to govern. He made backroom deals with various corrupt Polish and Saxonian nobles, engaged in political intrigue and disputes, and fattened himself off his wealth and goods. Both Poland and Saxony experienced severe economic, political, and military decay and decline, which would leave them exposed to other foreign powers, such as Russia, Prussia, and Austria, amongst others.

In Austria, Queen-Archduchess Maria Theresa continued her efforts at centralizing and unifying her various dominions. The Archduchess issued a decree which divided Austria, Bohemia, and most of western Hungary into 130 bezirks (districts). Each district would be controlled by a governor-general, appointed and dismissed by the Archduchess at will. The governor-general would act as the representative of the Crown of the Dominions and the Council of State, overseeing the affairs of his district. He would be assisted by a council of nobles, consisting of various nobles, gentlemen, and landowners living in that district chosen by the governor at will. Each district would have a secretary of finances, responsible for managing the district treasury and collecting taxes, and a garrison commander, who would control the militia and military forces stationed in that district. All, including the governor-general, would be supervised by a royal intendant, who would report directly on their actions to the Crown. This new provincial administration, effective in the Austrian, Bohemian, and western Hungarian regions where it was implemented, would eventually be extended to Croatia, eastern Hungary, the Austrian Netherlands, and Milan.

In Russia, Empress Natalia I now decided to begin a gradual reform of the Russian government. The government had been organized into its present states by Natalia's father, Peter the Great. It was primarily consisted of three organizations: the Governing Senate, which acted as a supreme council of state and justice and was lead by a ober-procurator, the Holy Synod, which served as the governing body of the Orthodox Church, and the colleges, collectively managed and operated bodies responsible for certain affairs of state. The government civil service operated by the lines of the Table of Ranks, also established by Peter the Great. Natalia was determined to change some of this. The Empress issued a edict that reorganized the membership of the Holy Synod, to now consist of a governing procurator, a vice procurator, a secretary of affairs, and twelve other members, consisting of the primary archbishops and bishops of Russia. The edict also established new rules and procedures for the Synod as well.

In the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Mustafa III, engaging in a extensive struggle with his courtiers and the Grand Vizier for more power, was able to make some gains. He was able to issue a proclamation which reaffirmed his position as the "supreme executor of Allah's will", thus confirming his religious authority. The Sultan, gathering support amongst the Janissaries, also reasserted his position as commander-in-chief of the Ottoman army. However, he was bogged down in disputes once again, and could achieve no more for the year.

In Japan, Shogun Kamuraki continued his own modernization efforts. The Shogun personally received a Dutch diplomatic mission to Kyoto, the Japanese capital at the time. He exchanged gifts and diplomatic letters with them, establishing formal contacts with the Dutch East Indies through the mission. Kamuraki issued a edict which required the use of European-style firearms and guns in the military. He further encouraged European dress and customs, redesigned the Imperial Palace in Kyoto, increased commerce, and implemented a policy of religious toleration. Christian doctors, missionaries, scientists, and explorers were recruited into Japan. Kamuraki also dispatched another mission to establish contact with Russia (the first mission having never reached its destination).